Origin of Speech

how old is old

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Antiquity of पूर्वानुपूर्व शिवसूत्र [^10]

Abstract

The phonological distinctions presupposed by the vowel section of the Śiva­sūtra require the ability to produce quantal vowels, while indicating articulatory capabilities different from those of anatomically modern humans. This places the creation of the Śiva­sūtra no earlier than the evolution of the biological capacity for quantal vowel production. A more confident lower bound for the composition of the vowel section of the Śiva­sūtra lies at the extinction of Homo species other than Homo sapiens (~40,000 years ago).

Introduction

In संस्कृत, all words are derived words. पाणिनि has compiled a grammar that describes how words are derived. It is called अष्टाध्यायी and consists of approximately 4,000 सूत्र. These सूत्र in turn depend on a list of वर्ण—something akin to an alphabet. This list is the माहेश्वरसूत्र, also called the शिवसूत्र. It is an ancient alphabet that has been preserved since time immemorial as part of language teachings. It is the foundation of the work of पाणिनि [^9]. This is perhaps the most ancient text in the history of mankind, and, as I propose here, it predates the emergence of Homo sapiens.

The शिवसूत्र has two parts – स्वर (vowels) and व्यंजन (consonants).
The व्यंजन (consonants) part is evidently not older than the Hominini (31–33 lakh years ago) because other extant species (chimpanzees and bonobos) surviving within the Hominini do not exhibit the ability to produce all consonants.

To decide the time frame for the creation of the शिवसूत्र, we need to decide the following:

  1. Ceiling (not before date): Not all स्वर have emerged at the same time. Each स्वर has its own time of origin. The time of emergence is identified by looking at other species in the lineage where the ability to produce the given स्वर emerged. The upper limit for the स्वर portion of the शिवसूत्र is the time by which it was possible to produce all स्वर.
  2. Floor (not after date): This is determined based on two aspects.
    a. Some स्वर are present in the शिवसूत्र that Homo sapiens cannot produce as described in the शिक्षा. Extinction of species with the ability to produce these sounds in the manner prescribed in the पाणिनीय शिक्षा is considered the floor.
    b. Sounds that Homo sapiens can produce but are absent in शिवसूत्र. There are some स्वर (vowels) as well as some व्यंजन (consonants) that Homo sapiens can produce but are absent in शिवसूत्र.
    When it comes to the floor, the only conclusion we are able to make is: before Homo sapiens. We are not able to identify the floor with sufficient accuracy beyond that. Reconstruction of the vocal anatomy of Homo erectus and earlier Homo is needed to arrive at a more precise floor.

Key considerations in this regard are:

  1. 2 + 5 + 2 स्वर system
  2. अ इ उ are present. But आ is absent
  3. ऋ and ऌ are present. They are स्वर and अ-स्पृश्य
  4. Two types of ह exist
  5. The grid of 3 × 3 × 2 is absent
  6. Absence of ळ

2 + 5 + 2 स्वर system and its antiquity (upper ceiling)

शिवसूत्र has three types of vowels (स्वर): growl vowels, quantal vowels and derived vowels. Let us see how far back in the evolutionary tree we are able to find traces of these.

Growl vowels: There are two of them—ऋ and ऌ. These have a history spanning deep time. In their नृत्य form, these vowels are 50–55 crore years old.[^3] In their sound form, they are 31–33 crore years old.[^2]

Quantal vowels: There are 5 of them: अ इ उ ए ओ. We can infer from Louis-Jean Boë and others that these are at least 2.5 crore years old.[^1]

Derived vowels: There are two derived vowels. I am considering these as standalone वर्ण in line with शिवसूत्र. They are: अ + इ = ऐ and आ + ओ = औ.
Research shows chimpanzees1, monkeys2, suricates3, whales4, and some birds4 can also combine sounds this way. The ability to combine sounds predates the ability to produce the quantal vowel. So, ऐ and औ could be as old as constituent vowels, i.e., at least 2.5 crore years.

The above-quoted research indicates that the ability to produce the स्वर part of शिवसूत्र is very ancient. It does not necessarily mean the शिवसूत्र was compiled that early; rather, the sounds and their anatomical and neural infrastructure have been present since that age. This only gives us an upper limit by when the स्वर portion of the शिवसूत्र could have been compiled, as these sounds were present.
To find the lower limit by which the स्वर portion of the शिवसूत्र must have been completed, we need to look for: (1) स्वर that are present in शिवसूत्र but have gone extinct subsequently and (2) स्वर that are absent in शिवसूत्र but come into existence later. This is akin to character-based phylogenetic dating.

Absence of आ (lower limit)

Presence of अ इ उ ए ओ sets an upper limit for शिवसूत्र स्वर to at least 2.5 crore years as stated above. Absence of आ gives us a window of the lower limit.
Traditional Sanskrit grammar considers दीर्घ अ as आ. However, I am considering दीर्घ अ to be different from आ as evidenced by the last सूत्र of अष्टाध्यायी 8.4.68. The fact that आ is present in अष्टाध्यायी and absent in शिवसूत्र helps us put a lower limit to शिवसूत्र and an upper limit to अष्टाध्यायी. Refer to “Where is आ” for a detailed discussion.
The शिवसूत्र was formed before the ability to produce a distinct आ and the compilation of अष्टाध्यायी is subsequent to the ability to produce a distinct आ. अष्टाध्यायी is a compilation of pre-existing inherited knowledge; it is possible that (1) अष्टाध्यायी was compiled after आ-ability, or (2) अष्टाध्यायी was recompiled after आ emerged.[^11]
In both scenarios, शिवसूत्र predates the ability to produce a distinct आ, and thus predates Homo sapiens.

ऋ and ऌ are स्वर and अ-स्पृश्य.

ऋ and ऌ are described as स्वर and are distinct from the स्पृश्य (touch) sounds[^4]. This means they have to be produced without the tongue, teeth, or lips touching any part of the mouth. When we try to produce these sounds in this manner, for example, by holding the tongue, we obtain distinct sounds. I am considering these as original ऋ and ऌ. (The reader is requested to immobilize the tongue using the index finger and thumb, and then attempt to pronounce ऋ and ऌ in immediate succession before proceeding.) Evidently, ऋ is a roar and ऌ is a yelp/wail. In the context of fiddler crabs’ dance, these vowels are 50–55 crore years old [^3] in their gestural form (नृत) and, in their sound form, they are 31–33 crore years old. [^2] The brain circuitry giving meaning to these two vowels predates both hearing and speech abilities. Here “vowel” is to be interpreted in the context of पूर्वानुपूर्व स्मृत श्रुत (hereditary memory and tellings) belief that speech evolved from dance.

It is not possible for Homo sapiens to produce ऋ and ऌ sounds in the manner described in the शिक्षा. Because आ is absent and ऋ & ऌ both are present, we can conclude that the creation of शिवसूत्र predated Homo sapiens. For more details refer to ऋऌक्

Further research is required to confirm it, but it is possible that ऋ and ऌ are sounds associated with laryngeal air sacs. Early Homo species had laryngeal air sacs, and they went extinct sometime between 33 lakh years ago and 6 lakh years ago[^13]. It is possible that social memory of that air sac assisted vowels persists as ऋ and ऌ even after the loss of air sacs. If this hypothesis is correct, the floor for the creation of शिवसूत्र shifts to 600,000 years ago.[^13] This is quite plausible because seafaring is not possible without language and Homo erectus seafaring is 14–15 lakh years old.[^14]

Two types of ह

ह is not स्वर, but I am discussing it here because it supports the hypothesis.
Two distinct forms of ह are mentioned in शिवसूत्र. We, Homo sapiens, have two distinctly produced ह sounds, but we are unable to distinguish them with our auditory circuits. The fact that these two were distinctly perceived is reflected in the शिवसूत्र containing both forms of ह. We hear these two different ह as one वर्ण in spite of two completely different mechanisms of production. This indicates pre-sapiens origin of शिवसूत्र. Brain circuitry to identify these two as distinct was present at some point. Distinction was lost either through anatomical evolution or linguistic evolution. We know for sure that Homo sapiens is not able to distinguish between the two ह and hence this narration indicates pre-sapiens origin.

Absence of 3 × 3 × 2 grid

There are 18 ways in which a स्वर can be pronounced in Sanskrit. उदात्त, अनुदात्त, and स्वरित are three “tones”. ह्रस्व, दीर्घ, and प्लुत are three temporal durations/lengths. This gives us a grid of 3 × 3 for each स्वर. Besides this, each स्वर can be nasal or normal. Thus, each स्वर can have 3 × 3 × 2 varieties.
These varieties are absent in शिवसूत्र. It could be absent for the sake of brevity. Or it was absent because the ability to produce these varieties, which requires fine control of speech muscles, was absent.
We do not know exactly when the necessary anatomical hardware evolved to enable the production of these varieties. But we know for sure that these are present in Homo sapiens. So if the absence of these in the शिवसूत्र is considered inability to produce these varieties, the शिवसूत्र must predate Homo sapiens. Like the earlier discussion on आ, this also sets शिवसूत्र at a minimum 40,000 years ago and potentially, and likely, 315,000 years ago.

Absence of ळ

ळ is not a स्वर, but I am discussing it because it supports the hypothesis.
ळ is absent in शिवसूत्र and all धातु. But it is present in the later-day[^12] वेद. Though वैदिक people had the ability to produce ळ, it was accepted in संधि but never as a constituent of a word. This is so because by the time ळ came into being, language had mostly evolved except for the संधि rules.

Summing up

The स्वर portion of the शिवसूत्र was created at least 40,000 years ago, and no earlier than 2.5 crore years ago.

This conclusion is based on:

  1. Presence of ऋ and ऌ as अ-स्पृश्य स्वर (An ability that Homo sapiens has lost)
  2. Absence of आ (An ability absent earlier but present in Homo sapiens)
  3. Absence of 18 varieties of स्वर (An ability absent earlier and present in Homo sapiens)
  4. Ability to distinguish two ह (An ability Homo sapiens has lost)
    We can conclude that the शिवसूत्र predates Homo sapiens. That makes it at least 40,000 years old.
    If we consider the earliest possible date by which the स्वर of शिवसूत्र could be pronounced, we get different earliest possible dates for different स्वर. For the entire स्वर group, we get a ceiling of 2.5 crore years.
    ऋ and ऌ as स्वर go back to 31–33 crore years [^2] and cease to exist as sound-based स्वर by 40,000 years ago.
    Quantal vowels (अ इ उ ए ओ) have been spoken for at least 2.5 crore years. Because the combinatorial ability pre-existed, ऐ and औ could also be produced at least 2.5 crore years ago.

Thus, the list of स्वर (vowels) as preserved in the शिवसूत्र has been compiled not later than 40,000 years ago (Time when only Homo sapiens was extant) and not earlier than 2.5 crore years ago.

Footnotes
[^1] : “Evidence of a Vocalic Proto-System in the Baboon (Papio papio) Suggests Pre-Hominin Speech Precursors” by Louis-Jean Boë and others
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0169321
These sounds are not identical to अ इ उ ए ओ. But there are 5 primary vowels. https://osf.io/3ndfh/overview
[^2] “On the Occurrence and Significance of Motivation-Structural Rules in Some Bird and Mammal Sounds” by Morton, E. S. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2460385 read in context of the Synapsids—Sauropsids split. The split is estimated to have occurred between 31 and 33 crore years ago. Paleontological evidence to date the tree of life by Benton, M. J., and Donoghue, P. C. J.
https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/24/1/26/1070944
[^3] : “Fiddler Crabs of the World” by Jocelyn Crane
[^4] : पाणिनीय शिक्षा lists स्वर as distinct from स्पृश्य in सूत्र 4. But in sutra 17 and 18 स्वर are also listed in the place of origination of sound. This has to be interpreted as - ऋ is मूर्धन्य and ऌ is दंत्य in the way अ is कण्ठ्य, उ is ओष्ठज, and इ is तालव्य. ऋ and ऌ are to be pronounced without tongue, lips or teeth touching each other. With the tongue positioned near the मूर्धा and दंत, respectively.

Footnotes

  1. “Versatile use of chimpanzee Call Combinations Promotes Meaning Expansion” by Cédric Girard-Buttoz and others https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adq2879 ↩

  2. “Campbell’s Monkeys Concatenate Vocalisations into Context-specific Call Sequences” by Karim Ouattara and others https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.0908118106
    “Formal Monkey Linguistics : The Debate” and “Extensive Compositionality in the Vocal System of Bonobos” by Berthet, Surbeck & Townsend, 2025 https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adv1170 ↩

  3. “The Acoustic Structure of Suricates’ Alarm Calls Varies With Predator Type and the Level of Response Urgency” by M B Manser https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1088882/ ↩

  4. Works of Payne & McVay
    [^9] : When you mix acid and base, salt and water are created. It does not happen because it is written in a chemistry book. Chemistry book has written that because it happens in real life. Similarly, words are not formed because the अष्टाध्यायी सूत्र says so. अष्टाध्यायी सूत्र describes what is occurring in the real world. Most likely, physically before it was expressed verbally.
    [^10] : Word used in पाणिनिशिक्षा-1 is शास्त्रानुपूर्वं. (https://ashtadhyayi.com/shiksha)
    Literally, as per my theory, it means since (आ) long (श) gather (स) place त्र , here अ pulled न (from) the first (पूर्व)
    [^11] अ–अ present in earlier works from which अष्टाध्यायी descends became either आ or अ. The last सूत्र of अष्टाध्यायी can be interpreted as - wherever original दीर्घ अ (अ-अ) meant आ, it has been converted to आ and the remaining दीर्घ अ (अ-अ) are to be treated as अ. (https://ashtadhyayi.com/sutraani/8/4/68)
    [^12] How do we know वेद is subsequent? वेद makes use of धातु. So धातु must have existence before वेद. धातु consists of वर्ण, so वर्ण must have been in existence before धातु were formed.
    [^13] Loss of air sacs improved hominin speech abilities by Bart de Boer https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22078314/
    [^14] Hominins on Sulawesi during the Early Pleistocene by Budianti Hakin and others
    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09348-6 ↩ ↩2

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